C++11/14/17

Overview

Many of these descriptions and examples come from various resources (see Acknowledgements section), summarized in my own words.

C++17 includes the following new language features:

template argument deduction for class templates
declaring non-type template parameters with auto
folding expressions
new rules for auto deduction from braced-init-list
constexpr lambda
inline variables
nested namespaces
structured bindings
selection statements with initializer
constexpr if

C++17 includes the following new library features:

std::variant
std::optional
std::any
std::string_view
std::invoke
std::apply
splicing for maps and sets

C++14 includes the following new language features:

binary literals
generic lambda expressions
lambda capture initializers
return type deduction
decltype(auto)
relaxing constraints on constexpr functions

C++14 includes the following new library features:

user-defined literals for standard library types
compile-time integer sequences

C++11 includes the following new language features:

move semantics
variadic templates
rvalue references
initializer lists
static assertions
auto
lambda expressions
decltype
template aliases
nullptr
strongly-typed enums
attributes
constexpr
delegating constructors
user-defined literals
explicit virtual overrides
default functions
deleted functions
range-based for loops
special member functions for move semantics

C++11 includes the following new library features:

std::move
std::forward
std::to_string
type traits
smart pointers
std::chrono
tuples
std::tie
std::array
unordered containers
memory model

C++17 Language Features

Template argument deduction for class templates

Automatic template argument deduction much like how it's done for functions, but now including class constructors.

template <typename T = float>
struct MyContainer {
  T val;
  MyContainer() : val() {}
  MyContainer(T val) : val(val) {}
  // ...
};
MyContainer c1{ 1 }; // OK MyContainer<int>
MyContainer c2; // OK MyContainer<float>

Declaring non-type template parameters with auto

Following the deduction rules of auto, while respecting the non-type template parameter list of allowable types[*], template arguments can be deduced from the types of its arguments:

// Explicitly pass type `int` as template argument.
auto seq = std::integer_sequence<int, 0, 1, 2>();
// Type is deduced to be `int`.
auto seq2 = my_integer_sequence<0, 1, 2>();

* - For example, you cannot use a double as a template parameter type, which also makes this an invalid deduction using auto.

Folding expressions

A fold expression performs a fold of a template parameter pack over a binary operator.

An expression of the form (... op e) or (e op ...), where op is a fold-operator and e is an unexpanded parameter pack, are called unary folds.
An expression of the form (e1 op1 ... op2 e2), where op1 and op2 are fold-operators, is called a binary fold. Either e1 or e2 are unexpanded parameter packs, but not both.

template<typename... Args>
bool logicalAnd(Args... args) {
    // Binary folding.
    return (true && ... && args);
}
bool b = true;
bool& b2 = b;
logicalAnd(b, b2, true); // == true

template<typename... Args>
auto sum(Args... args) {
    // Unary folding.
    return (... + args);
}
sum(1.0, 2.0f, 3); // == 6.0

New rules for auto deduction from braced-init-list

Changes to auto deduction when used with the uniform initialization syntax. Previously, auto x{ 3 }; deduces a std::initializer_list<int>, which now deduces to int.

auto x1{ 1, 2, 3 }; // error: not a single element
auto x2 = { 1, 2, 3 }; // decltype(x2) is std::initializer_list<int>
auto x3{ 3 }; // decltype(x3) is int
auto x4{ 3.0 }; // decltype(x4) is double

constexpr lambda

Compile-time lambdas using constexpr.

auto identity = [] (int n) constexpr { return n; };
static_assert(identity(123) == 123);

constexpr auto add = [] (int x, int y) {
  auto L = [=] { return x; };
  auto R = [=] { return y; };
  return [=] { return L() + R(); };
};

static_assert(add(1, 2)() == 3);

constexpr int addOne(int n) {
  return [n] { return n + 1; }();
}

static_assert(addOne(1) == 2);

Inline variables

The inline specifier can be applied to variables as well as to functions. A variable declared inline has the same semantics as a function declared inline.

// Disassembly example using compiler explorer.
struct S { int x; };
inline S x1 = S{321}; // mov esi, dword ptr [x1]
                      // x1: .long 321

S x2 = S{123};        // mov eax, dword ptr [.L_ZZ4mainE2x2]
                      // mov dword ptr [rbp - 8], eax
                      // .L_ZZ4mainE2x2: .long 123

Nested namespaces

Using the namespace resolution operator to create nested namespace definitions.

namespace A {
  namespace B {
    namespace C {
      int i;
    }
  }
}
// vs.
namespace A::B::C {
  int i;
}

Structured bindings

A proposal for de-structuring initialization, that would allow writing auto {x, y, z} = expr; where the type of expr was a tuple-like object, whose elements would be bound to the variables x, y, and z (which this construct declares). Tuple-like objects include std::tuple, std::pair, std::array, and aggregate structures.

using Coordinate = std::pair<int, int>;
Coordinate origin() {
  return Coordinate{0, 0};
}

const auto [ x, y ] = origin();
x; // == 0
y; // == 0

Selection statements with initializer

New versions of the if and switch statements which simplify common code patterns and help users keep scopes tight.

{
  std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lk(mx);
  if (v.empty()) v.push_back(val);
}
// vs.
if (std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lk(mx); v.empty()) {
  v.push_back(val);
}

Foo gadget(args);
switch (auto s = gadget.status()) {
  case OK: gadget.zip(); break;
  case Bad: throw BadFoo(s.message());
}
// vs.
switch (Foo gadget(args); auto s = gadget.status()) {
  case OK: gadget.zip(); break;
  case Bad: throw BadFoo(s.message());
}

constexpr if

Write code that is instantiated depending on a compile-time condition.

template <typename T>
constexpr bool isIntegral() {
  if constexpr (std::is_integral<T>::value) {
    return true;
  } else {
    return false;
  }
}
static_assert(isIntegral<int>() == true);
static_assert(isIntegral<char>() == true);
static_assert(isIntegral<double>() == false);
struct S {};
static_assert(isIntegral<S>() == false);

C++17 Library Features

std::variant

The class template std::variant represents a type-safe union. An instance of std::variant at any given time holds a value of one of its alternative types (it's also possible for it to be valueless).

std::variant<int, double> v{ 12 };
std::get<int>(v); // == 12
std::get<0>(v); // == 12
v = 12.0;
std::get<double>(v); // == 12.0
std::get<1>(v); // == 12.0

std::optional

The class template std::optional manages an optional contained value, i.e. a value that may or may not be present. A common use case for optional is the return value of a function that may fail.

std::optional<std::string> create(bool b) {
  if (b) {
    return "Godzilla";
  } else {
    return {};
  }
}

create(false).value_or("empty"); // == "empty"
create(true).value(); // == "Godzilla"
// optional-returning factory functions are usable as conditions of while and if
if (auto str = create(true)) {
  // ...
}

std::any

A type-safe container for single values of any type.

std::any x{ 5 };
x.has_value() // == true
std::any_cast<int>(x) // == 5
std::any_cast<int&>(x) = 10;
std::any_cast<int>(x) // == 10

std::string_view

A non-owning reference to a string. Useful for providing an abstraction on top of strings (e.g. for parsing).

// Regular strings.
std::string_view cppstr{ "foo" };
// Wide strings.
std::wstring_view wcstr_v{ L"baz" };
// Character arrays.
char array[3] = {'b', 'a', 'r'};
std::string_view array_v(array, sizeof array);

std::string str{ "   trim me" };
std::string_view v{ str };
v.remove_prefix(std::min(v.find_first_not_of(" "), v.size()));
str; //  == "   trim me"
v; // == "trim me"

std::invoke

Invoke a Callable object with parameters. Examples of Callable objects are std::function or std::bind where an object can be called similarly to a regular function.

template <typename Callable>
class Proxy {
    Callable c;
public:
    Proxy(Callable c): c(c) {}
    template <class... Args>
    decltype(auto) operator()(Args&&... args) {
        // ...
        return std::invoke(c, std::forward<Args>(args)...);
    }
};
auto add = [] (int x, int y) {
  return x + y;
};
Proxy<decltype(add)> p{ add };
p(1, 2); // == 3

std::apply

Invoke a Callable object with a tuple of arguments.

auto add = [] (int x, int y) {
  return x + y;
};
std::apply(add, std::make_tuple( 1, 2 )); // == 3

Splicing for maps and sets

Moving nodes and merging containers without the overhead of expensive copies, moves, or heap allocations/deallocations.

Moving elements from one map to another:

std::map<int, string> src{ { 1, "one" }, { 2, "two" }, { 3, "buckle my shoe" } };
std::map<int, string> dst{ { 3, "three" } };
dst.insert(src.extract(src.find(1))); // Cheap remove and insert of { 1, "one" } from `src` to `dst`.
dst.insert(src.extract(2)); // Cheap remove and insert of { 2, "two" } from `src` to `dst`.
// dst == { { 1, "one" }, { 2, "two" }, { 3, "three" } };

Inserting an entire set:

std::set<int> src{1, 3, 5};
std::set<int> dst{2, 4, 5};
dst.merge(src);
// src == { 5 }
// dst == { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

Inserting elements which outlive the container:

auto elementFactory() {
  std::set<...> s;
  s.emplace(...);
  return s.extract(s.begin());
}
s2.insert(elementFactory());

Changing the key of a map element:

std::map<int, string> m{ { 1, "one" }, { 2, "two" }, { 3, "three" } };
auto e = m.extract(2);
e.key() = 4;
m.insert(std::move(e));
// m == { { 1, "one" }, { 3, "three" }, { 4, "two" } }

C++14 Language Features

Binary literals

Binary literals provide a convenient way to represent a base-2 number. It is possible to separate digits with '.

0b110 // == 6
0b1111'1111 // == 255

Generic lambda expressions

C++14 now allows the auto type-specifier in the parameter list, enabling polymorphic lambdas.

auto identity = [](auto x) { return x; };
int three = identity(3); // == 3
std::string foo = identity("foo"); // == "foo"

Lambda capture initializers

This allows creating lambda captures initialized with arbitrary expressions. The name given to the captured value does not need to be related to any variables in the enclosing scopes and introduces a new name inside the lambda body. The initializing expression is evaluated when the lambda is created (not when it is invoked).

int factory(int i) { return i * 10; }
auto f = [x = factory(2)] { return x; }; // returns 20

auto generator = [x = 0] () mutable {
  // this would no compile without 'mutable' as we are modifying x on each call
  return x++;
};
auto a = generator(); // == 0
auto b = generator(); // == 1
auto c = generator(); // == 2

Because it is now possible to move (or forward) values into a lambda that could previously be only captured by copy or reference we can now capture move-only types in a lambda by value. Note that in the below example the p in the capture-list of task2 on the left-hand-side of = is a new variable private to the lambda body and does not refer to the original p.

auto p = std::make_unique<int>(1);

auto task1 = [=] { *p = 5; }; // ERROR: std::unique_ptr cannot be copied
// vs.
auto task2 = [p = std::move(p)] { *p = 5; }; // OK: p is move-constructed into the closure object
// the original p is empty after task2 is created

Using this reference-captures can have different names than the referenced variable.

auto x = 1;
auto f = [&r = x, x = x * 10] {
  ++r;
  return r + x;
};
f(); // sets x to 2 and returns 12

Return type deduction

Using an auto return type in C++14, the compiler will attempt to deduce the type for you. With lambdas, you can now deduce its return type using auto, which makes returning a deduced reference or rvalue reference possible.

// Deduce return type as `int`.
auto f(int i) {
 return i;
}

template <typename T>
auto& f(T& t) {
  return t;
}

// Returns a reference to a deduced type.
auto g = [](auto& x) -> auto& { return f(x); };
int y = 123;
int& z = g(y); // reference to `y`

decltype(auto)

The decltype(auto) type-specifier also deduces a type like auto does. However, it deduces return types while keeping their references or "const-ness", while auto will not.

const int x = 0;
auto x1 = x; // int
decltype(auto) x2 = x; // const int
int y = 0;
int& y1 = y;
auto y2 = y; // int
decltype(auto) y3 = y; // int&
int&& z = 0;
auto z1 = std::move(z); // int
decltype(auto) z2 = std::move(z); // int&&

// Note: Especially useful for generic code!

// Return type is `int`.
auto f(const int& i) {
 return i;
}

// Return type is `const int&`.
decltype(auto) g(const int& i) {
 return i;
}

int x = 123;
static_assert(std::is_same<const int&, decltype(f(x))>::value == 0);
static_assert(std::is_same<int, decltype(f(x))>::value == 1);
static_assert(std::is_same<const int&, decltype(g(x))>::value == 1);

Relaxing constraints on constexpr functions

In C++11, constexpr function bodies could only contain a very limited set of syntax, including (but not limited to): typedefs, usings, and a single return statement. In C++14, the set of allowable syntax expands greatly to include the most common syntax such as if statements, multiple returns, loops, etc.

constexpr int factorial(int n) {
  if (n <= 1) {
    return 1;
  } else {
    return n * factorial(n - 1);
  }
}
factorial(5); // == 120

C++14 Library Features

User-defined literals for standard library types

New user-defined literals for standard library types, including new built-in literals for chrono and basic_string. These can be constexpr meaning they can be used at compile-time. Some uses for these literals include compile-time integer parsing, binary literals, and imaginary number literals.

using namespace std::chrono_literals;
auto day = 24h;
day.count(); // == 24
std::chrono::duration_cast<std::chrono::minutes>(day).count(); // == 1440

Compile-time integer sequences

The class template std::integer_sequence represents a compile-time sequence of integers. There are a few helpers built on top:

std::make_integer_sequence<T, N...> - creates a sequence of 0, ..., N - 1 with type T.
std::index_sequence_for<T...> - converts a template parameter pack into an integer sequence.

Convert an array into a tuple:

template<typename Array, std::size_t... I>
decltype(auto) a2t_impl(const Array& a, std::integer_sequence<std::size_t, I...>) {
  return std::make_tuple(a[I]...);
}

template<typename T, std::size_t N, typename Indices = std::make_index_sequence<N>>
decltype(auto) a2t(const std::array<T, N>& a) {
  return a2t_impl(a, Indices());
}

C++11 Language Features

Move semantics

Move semantics is mostly about performance optimization: the ability to move an object without the expensive overhead of copying. The difference between a copy and a move is that a copy leaves the source unchanged, and a move will leave the source either unchanged or radically different -- depending on what the source is. For plain old data, a move is the same as a copy.

To move an object means to transfer ownership of some resource it manages to another object. You could think of this as changing pointers held by the source object to be moved, or now held, by the destination object; the resource remains in its location in memory. Such an inexpensive transfer of resources is extremely useful when the source is an rvalue, where the potentially dangerous side-effect of changing the source after the move is redundant since the source is a temporary object that won't be accessible later.

Moves also make it possible to transfer objects such as std::unique_ptrs, smart pointers that are designed to hold a pointer to a unique object, from one scope to another.

See the sections on: rvalue references, defining move special member functions, std::move, std::forward.

Rvalue references

C++11 introduces a new reference termed the rvalue reference. An rvalue reference to A is created with the syntax A&&. This enables two major features: move semantics; and perfect forwarding, the ability to pass arguments while maintaining information about them as lvalues/rvalues in a generic way.

auto type deduction with lvalues and rvalues:

int x = 0; // `x` is an lvalue of type `int`
int& xl = x; // `xl` is an lvalue of type `int&`
int&& xr = x; // compiler error -- `x` is an lvalue
int&& xr2 = 0; // `xr2` is an lvalue of type `int&&`
auto& al = x; // `al` is an lvalue of type `int&`
auto&& al2 = x; // `al2` is an lvalue of type `int&`
auto&& ar = 0; // `ar` is an lvalue of type `int&&`

Variadic templates

The ... syntax creates a parameter pack or expands one. A template parameter pack is a template parameter that accepts zero or more template arguments (non-types, types, or templates). A template with at least one parameter pack is called a variadic template.

template <typename... T>
struct arity {
  constexpr static int value = sizeof...(T);
};
static_assert(arity<>::value == 0);
static_assert(arity<char, short, int>::value == 3);

Initializer lists

A lightweight array-like container of elements created using a "braced list" syntax. For example, { 1, 2, 3 } creates a sequences of integers, that has type std::initializer_list<int>. Useful as a replacement to passing a vector of objects to a function.

int sum(const std::initializer_list<int>& list) {
  int total = 0;
  for (auto& e : list) {
    total += e;
  }

  return total;
}

auto list = { 1, 2, 3 };
f(list); // == 6
f({ 1, 2, 3 }); // == 6
f({}); // == 0

Static assertions

Assertions that are evaluated at compile-time.

constexpr int x = 0;
constexpr int y = 1;
static_assert(x == y, "x != y");

auto

auto-typed variables are deduced by the compiler according to the type of their initializer.

auto a = 3.14; // double
auto b = 1; // int
auto& c = b; // int&
auto d = { 0 }; // std::initializer_list<int>
auto&& e = 1; // int&&
auto&& f = b; // int&
auto g = new auto(123); // int*
const auto h = 1; // const int
auto i = 1, j = 2, k = 3; // int, int, int
auto l = 1, m = true, n = 1.61; // error -- `l` deduced to be int, `m` is bool
auto o; // error -- `o` requires initializer

Extremely useful for readability, especially for complicated types:

std::vector<int> v = ...;
std::vector<int>::const_iterator cit = v.cbegin();
// vs.
auto cit = v.cbegin();

Functions can also deduce the return type using auto. In C++11, a return type must be specified either explicitly, or using decltype like so:

template <typename X, typename Y>
auto add(X x, Y y) -> decltype(x + y) {
  return x + y;
}
add(1, 2); // == 3
add(1, 2.0); // == 3.0
add(1.5, 1.5); // == 3.0

The trailing return type in the above example is the declared type (see section on decltype) of the expression x + y. For example, if x is an integer and y is a double, decltype(x + y) is a double. Therefore, the above function will deduce the type depending on what type the expression x + y yields. Notice that the trailing return type has access to its parameters, and this when appropriate.

Lambda expressions

A lambda is an unnamed function object capable of capturing variables in scope. It features: a capture list; an optional set of parameters with an optional trailing return type; and a body. Examples of capture lists:

[] - captures nothing.
[=] - capture local objects (local variables, parameters) in scope by value.
[&] - capture local objects (local variables, parameters) in scope by reference.
[this] - capture this pointer by value.
[a, &b] - capture objects a by value, b by reference.

int x = 1;

auto getX = [=]{ return x; };
getX(); // == 1

auto addX = [=](int y) { return x + y; };
addX(1); // == 2

auto getXRef = [&]() -> int& { return x; };
getXRef(); // int& to `x`

By default value-captures cannot be modified inside the lambda because the compiler-generated method is marked as const. The mutable keyword allows modifying captured variables. The keyword is placed after the parameter-list (which must be present even if it is empty).

int x = 1;

auto f1 = [&x] { x = 2; }; // OK: x is a reference and modifies the original

auto f2 = [x] { x = 2; }; // ERROR: the lambda can only perform const-operations on the captured value
// vs.
auto f3 = [x] () mutable { x = 2; }; // OK: the lambda can perform any operations on the captured value

decltype

decltype is an operator which returns the declared type of an expression passed to it. Examples of decltype:

int a = 1; // `a` is declared as type `int`
decltype(a) b = a; // `decltype(a)` is `int`
const int& c = a; // `c` is declared as type `const int&`
decltype(c) d = a; // `decltype(c)` is `const int&`
decltype(123) e = 123; // `decltype(123)` is `int`
int&& f = 1; // `f` is declared as type `int&&`
decltype(f) g = 1; // `decltype(f) is `int&&`
decltype((a)) h = x; // `decltype((a))` is int&

template <typename X, typename Y>
auto add(X x, Y y) -> decltype(x + y) {
  return x + y;
}
add(1, 2.0); // `decltype(x + y)` => `decltype(3.0)` => `double`

Template aliases

Semantically similar to using a typedef however, template aliases with using are easier to read and are compatible with templates.

template <typename T>
using Vec = std::vector<T>;
Vec<int> v{}; // std::vector<int>

using String = std::string;
String s{"foo"};

nullptr

C++11 introduces a new null pointer type designed to replace C's NULL macro. nullptr itself is of type std::nullptr_t and can be implicitly converted into pointer types, and unlike NULL, not convertible to integral types except bool.

void foo(int);
void foo(char*);
foo(NULL); // error -- ambiguous
foo(nullptr); // calls foo(char*)

Strongly-typed enums

Type-safe enums that solve a variety of problems with C-style enums including: implicit conversions, inability to specify the underlying type, scope pollution.

// Specifying underlying type as `unsigned int`
enum class Color : unsigned int { Red = 0xff0000, Green = 0xff00, Blue = 0xff };
// `Red`/`Green` in `Alert` don't conflict with `Color`
enum class Alert : bool { Red, Green };
Color c = Color::Red;

Attributes

Attributes provide a universal syntax over __attribute__(...), __declspec, etc.

// `noreturn` attribute indicates `f` doesn't return.
[[ noreturn ]] void f() {
  throw "error";
}

constexpr

Constant expressions are expressions evaluated by the compiler at compile-time. Only non-complex computations can be carried out in a constant expression. Use the constexpr specifier to indicate the variable, function, etc. is a constant expression.

constexpr int square(int x) {
  return x * x;
}

int square2(int x) {
  return x * x;
}

int a = square(2);  // mov DWORD PTR [rbp-4], 4

int b = square2(2); // mov edi, 2
                    // call square2(int)
                    // mov DWORD PTR [rbp-8], eax

constexpr values are those that the compiler can evaluate at compile-time:

const int x = 123;
constexpr const int& y = x; // error -- constexpr variable `y` must be initialized by a constant expression

Constant expressions with classes:

struct Complex {
  constexpr Complex(double r, double i) : re(r), im(i) { }
  constexpr double real() { return re; }
  constexpr double imag() { return im; }

private:
  double re;
  double im;
};

constexpr Complex I(0, 1);

Delegating constructors

Constructors can now call other constructors in the same class using an initializer list.

struct Foo {
  int foo;
  Foo(int foo) : foo(foo) {}
  Foo() : Foo(0) {}
};

Foo foo{};
foo.foo; // == 0

User-defined literals

User-defined literals allow you to extend the language and add your own syntax. To create a literal, define a T operator "" X(...) { ... } function that returns a type T, with a name X. Note that the name of this function defines the name of the literal. Any literal names not starting with an underscore are reserved and won't be invoked. There are rules on what parameters a user-defined literal function should accept, according to what type the literal is called on.

Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit:

// `unsigned long long` parameter required for integer literal.
long long operator "" _celsius(unsigned long long tempCelsius) {
  return std::llround(tempCelsius * 1.8 + 32);
}
24_celsius; // == 75

String to integer conversion:

// `const char*` and `std::size_t` required as parameters.
int operator "" _int(const char* str, std::size_t) {
  return std::stoi(str);
}

"123"_int; // == 123, with type `int`

Explicit virtual overrides

Specifies that a virtual function overrides another virtual function. If the virtual function does not override a parent's virtual function, throws a compiler error.

struct A {
  virtual void foo();
  void bar();
};

struct B : A {
  void foo() override; // correct -- B::foo overrides A::foo
  void bar() override; // error -- A::bar is not virtual
  void baz() override; // error -- B::baz does not override A::baz
};

Default functions

A more elegant, efficient way to provide a default implementation of a function, such as a constructor.

struct A {
  A() = default;
  A(int x) : x(x) {}
  int x{ 1 };
};
A a{}; // a.x == 1
A a2{ 123 }; // a.x == 123

With inheritance:

struct B {
  B() : x(1);
  int x;
};

struct C : B {
  // Calls B::B
  C() = default;
};

C c{}; // c.x == 1

Deleted functions

A more elegant, efficient way to provide a deleted implementation of a function. Useful for preventing copies on objects.

class A {
  int x;

public:
  A(int x) : x(x) {};
  A(const A&) = delete;
  A& operator=(const A&) = delete;
};

A x{ 123 };
A y = x; // error -- call to deleted copy constructor
y = x; // error -- operator= deleted

Range-based for loops

Syntactic sugar for iterating over a container's elements.

std::array<int, 5> a{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
for (int& x : a) x *= 2;
// a == { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }

Note the difference when using int as opposed to int&:

std::array<int, 5> a{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
for (int x : a) x *= 2;
// a == { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

Special member functions for move semantics

The copy constructor and copy assignment operator are called when copies are made, and with C++11's introduction of move semantics, there is now a move constructor and move assignment operator for moves.

struct A {
  std::string s;
  A() : s("test") {}
  A(const A& o) : s(o.s) {}
  A(A&& o) : s(std::move(o.s)) {}
  A& operator=(A&& o) {
   s = std::move(o.s);
   return *this;
  }
};

A f(A a) {
  return a;
}

A a1 = f(A{}); // move-constructed from rvalue temporary
A a2 = std::move(a1); // move-constructed using std::move
A a3 = A{};
a2 = std::move(a3); // move-assignment using std::move
a1 = f(A{}); // move-assignment from rvalue temporary

C++11 Library Features

std::move

std::move indicates that the object passed to it may be moved, or in other words, moved from one object to another without a copy. The object passed in should not be used after the move in certain situations.

A definition of std::move (performing a move is nothing more than casting to an rvalue):

template <typename T>
typename remove_reference<T>::type&& move(T&& arg) {
  return static_cast<typename remove_reference<T>::type&&>(arg);
}

Transferring std::unique_ptrs:

std::unique_ptr<int> p1{ new int };
std::unique_ptr<int> p2 = p1; // error -- cannot copy unique pointers
std::unique_ptr<int> p3 = std::move(p1); // move `p1` into `p2`
                                         // now unsafe to dereference object held by `p1`

std::forward

Returns the arguments passed to it as-is, either as an lvalue or rvalue references, and includes cv-qualification. Useful for generic code that need a reference (either lvalue or rvalue) when appropriate, e.g factories. Forwarding gets its power from template argument deduction:

T& & becomes T&
T& && becomes T&
T&& & becomes T&
T&& && becomes T&&

A definition of std::forward:

template <typename T>
T&& forward(typename remove_reference<T>::type& arg) {
  return static_cast<T&&>(arg);
}

An example of a function wrapper which just forwards other A objects to a new A object's copy or move constructor:

struct A {
  A() = default;
  A(const A& o) { std::cout << "copied" << std::endl; }
  A(A&& o) { std::cout << "moved" << std::endl; }
};

template <typename T>
A wrapper(T&& arg) {
  return A{ std::forward<T>(arg) };
}

wrapper(A{}); // moved
A a{};
wrapper(a); // copied
wrapper(std::move(a)); // moved

std::to_string

Converts a numeric argument to a std::string.

std::to_string(1.2); // == "1.2"
std::to_string(123); // == "123"

Type traits

Type traits defines a compile-time template-based interface to query or modify the properties of types.

static_assert(std::is_integral<int>::value == 1);
static_assert(std::is_same<int, int>::value == 1);
static_assert(std::is_same<std::conditional<true, int, double>::type, int>::value == 1);

Smart pointers

C++11 introduces new smart(er) pointers: std::unique_ptr, std::shared_ptr, std::weak_ptr. std::auto_ptr now becomes deprecated and then eventually removed in C++17. std::unique_ptr is a non-copyable, movable smart pointer that properly manages arrays and STL containers.

std::unique_ptr<Foo> p1(new Foo);  // `p1` owns `Foo`
if (p1) p1->bar();

{
  std::unique_ptr<Foo> p2(std::move(p1));  // Now `p2` owns `Foo`
  f(*p2);

  p1 = std::move(p2);  // Ownership returns to `p1` -- `p2` gets destroyed
}

if (p1) p1->bar();
// `Foo` instance is destroyed when `p1` goes out of scope

std::chrono

The chrono library contains a set of utility functions and types that deal with durations, clocks, and time points. One use case of this library is benchmarking code:

std::chrono::time_point<std::chrono::system_clock> start, end;
start = std::chrono::system_clock::now();
// Some computations...
end = std::chrono::system_clock::now();

std::chrono::duration<double> elapsed_seconds = end-start;

elapsed_seconds.count(); // t number of seconds, represented as a `double`

Tuples

Tuples are a fixed-size collection of heterogeneous values. Access the elements of a std::tuple by unpacking using std::tie, or using std::get.

// `playerProfile` has type `std::tuple<int, std::string, std::string>`.
auto playerProfile = std::make_tuple(51, "Frans Nielsen", "NYI");
std::get<0>(playerProfile); // 51
std::get<1>(playerProfile); // "Frans Nielsen"
std::get<2>(playerProfile); // "NYI"

std::tie

Creates a tuple of lvalue references. Useful for unpacking std::pair and std::tuple objects. Use std::ignore as a placeholder for ignored values. In C++17, structured bindings should be used instead.

// With tuples...
std::string playerName;
std::tie(std::ignore, playerName, std::ignore) = std::make_tuple(91, "John Tavares", "NYI");

// With pairs...
std::string yes, no;
std::tie(yes, no) = std::make_pair("yes", "no");

std::array

std::array is a container built on top of a C-style array. Supports common container operations such as sorting.

std::array<int, 3> a = {2, 1, 3};
std::sort(a.begin(), a.end()); // a == { 1, 2, 3 }
for (int& x : a) x *= 2; // a == { 2, 4, 6 }

Unordered containers

These containers maintain average constant-time complexity for search, insert, and remove operations. In order to achieve constant-time complexity, sacrifices order for speed by hashing elements into buckets. There are four unordered containers:

unordered_set
unordered_multiset
unordered_map
unordered_multimap

Memory model

C++11 introduces a memory model for C++, which means library support for threading and atomic operations. Some of these operations include (but aren't limited to) atomic loads/stores, compare-and-swap, atomic flags, promises, futures, locks, and condition variables.

Acknowledgements

cppreference - especially useful for finding examples and documentation of new library features.
C++ Rvalue References Explained - a great introduction I used to understand rvalue references, perfect forwarding, and move semantics.
clang and gcc's standards support pages. Also included here are the proposals for language/library features that I used to help find a description of, what it's meant to fix, and some examples.
Compiler explorer
Scott Meyers' Effective Modern C++ - highly recommended book!
Jason Turner's C++ Weekly - nice collection of C++-related videos.
What can I do with a moved-from object?
What are some uses of decltype(auto)?
And many more SO posts I'm forgetting...

Author

Anthony Calandra

Content Contributors

Those who have added new content will be listed here in no particular order.

thukydides - mentioned binary digit separators.
mknejp - lambda capture initializers and mutable keyword.

License

MIT

hhy5277 / modern-cpp-features Goto Github PK

modern-cpp-features's Introduction